Araştırma Makalesi
COMPARISON OF THE EFFECT OF SMOKING STATUS ON COGNITIVE FUNCTION, MOTOR PERFORMANCE AND DUAL-TASK IN SEDENTARY HEALTHY YOUNG ADULTS
Öz
Purpose: Many studies emphasize that smoking has negative effects on cognitive function and muscle strength. Therefore, the study aimed to compare cognitive function, motor performance, and dual-task of sedentary healthy young individuals according to smoking status.
Methods: In the descriptive study, young adults between the ages of 18 - 25 were included. Participants were divided into two groups; smokers and non-smokers. General cognitive status was evaluated with the Standardized Mini Mental Test (SMMT) and executive function with the Stroop test. For motor performance, quadriceps femoris muscle and grip strength assessed and Extended Timed Up and Go (ETUG) test were used. Participants’ dual-task gait performance was assessed with an auditory task concurrent with the ETUG. Shapiro-Wilk test was used for data normality. Due to the variables were not normally distributed, intergroup comparisons were evaluated with Mann Whitney U test.
Results: 62 participants with a mean age of 21.08 ± 1.08 and a body mass index of 21.73 ± 2.76 were included. In intergroup comparisons, there was no difference between two groups in cognitive function, quadriceps muscle strength and grip strength (p>0.05). There was a difference in favour of non-smokers between two groups in ETUG and cognitive ETUG (p<0.05).
Conclusion: In conclusion, smoking causes performance loss in both dynamic functional activities and dual-task in young adults.
Anahtar Kelimeler
Cognition Muscle Strength Smoking Task Performance and Analysis
Destekleyen Kurum
There is no person/organization that financially supports the study
Proje Numarası
-
Teşekkür
The authors thank all participants.
Kaynakça
- Adatia, A., Wahab, M., Shahid, I., Moinuddin, A., Killian, K. J., & Satia, I. (2021). Effects of cigarette smoke exposure on pulmonary physiology, muscle strength and exercise capacity in a retrospective cohort with 30,000 subjects. PLoS One, 16(6), e0250957-e0250957. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0250957
- Audrain-McGovern, J., Rodriguez, D., Cuevas, J., & Sass, J. (2013). Initial insight into why physical activity may help prevent adolescent smoking uptake. Drug and alcohol dependence, 132(3), 471-478. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.03.006
- Bashir, S., Alghamd, F., Alhussien, A., Alohali, M., Alatawi, A., Almusned, T., & Habib, S. S. (2017). Effect of Smoking on Cognitive Functioning in Young Saudi Adults. Med Sci Monit Basic Res, 23, 31-35. doi: 10.12659/msmbr.902385
- Bell, S. L., Taylor, R. C., Singleton, E. G., Henningfield, J. E., & Heishman, S. J. (1999). Smoking after nicotine deprivation enhances cognitive performance and decreases tobacco craving in drug abusers. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 1(1), 45-52.
- Beurskens, R., & Bock, O. (2011). Role of motor skills and visual demand for age-related deficits in dual-task walking. Ageing Research, 2(1), e5-e5.
- Brustio, P. R., Magistro, D., Zecca, M., Rabaglietti, E., & Liubicich, M. E. (2017). Age-related decrements in dual-task performance: Comparison of different mobility and cognitive tasks. A cross sectional study. PLoS One, 12(7), e0181698.
- Campos, M. W., Serebrisky, D., & Castaldelli-Maia, J. M. (2016). Smoking and Cognition. Curr Drug Abuse Rev, 9(2), 76-79. doi: 10.2174/1874473709666160803101633
- Cielen, N., Maes, K., Heulens, N., Troosters, T., Carmeliet, G., Janssens, W., & Gayan-Ramirez, G. N. (2016). Interaction between physical activity and smoking on lung, muscle, and bone in mice. American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology, 54(5), 674-682.
- Cildan Uysal, S., Tonak, H. A., & Kitis, A. (2022). Validity, reliability and test-retest study of Grip strength measurement in two positions with two dynamometers: Jamar® Plus and K-Force® Grip. Hand Surgery and Rehabilitation, 41(3), 305-310. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hansur.2022.02.007
- Degens, H., Gayan-Ramirez, G., & van Hees, H. W. (2015). Smoking-induced skeletal muscle dysfunction: from evidence to mechanisms. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 191(6), 620-625. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201410-1830PP
- Durutürk, N., & Acar, M. (2016). Üniversite Öğrencilerinde Sigara Tüketiminin Egzersiz Kapasitesi ve Sağlıkla İlgili Fiziksel Uygunluk Düzeyi Üzerine Etkisi. Başkent Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi-BÜSBİD, 1(2).
- Eymir, M., Yuksel, E., Unver, B., & Karatosun, V. (2021). Hand-Held Dynamometry in the Inpatient Care Setting After Total Knee Arthroplasty: Reliability of Static Knee Strength Measurements. American journal of physical medicine & rehabilitation, 100(6).
- Fisher, D. J., Knobelsdorf, A., Jaworska, N., Daniels, R., & Knott, V. J. (2013). Effects of nicotine on electroencephalographic (EEG) and behavioural measures of visual working memory in non-smokers during a dual-task paradigm. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 103(3), 494-500. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2012.09.014
- Fosang, A., & Baker, R. (2006). A method for comparing manual muscle strength measurements with joint moments during walking. Gait & Posture, 24(4), 406-411. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2005.09.015
- Hu, P., Huang, L., Zhou, S., Shi, Q., Xiao, D., & Wang, C. (2018). Smoking status and cognitive performance among vocational school students in Beijing, China. Respiratory medicine, 135, 8-11.
- Jacobsen, L. K., Krystal, J. H., Mencl, W. E., Westerveld, M., Frost, S. J., & Pugh, K. R. (2005). Effects of smoking and smoking abstinence on cognition in adolescent tobacco smokers. Biological psychiatry, 57(1), 56-66.
- Karakaş, S., Erdoğan, E., Sak, L., Soysal, A. Ş., Ulusoy, T., Ulusoy, İ. Y., & Alkan, S. (1999). Stroop Testi TBAG Formu: Türk kültürüne standardizasyon çalışmaları, güvenirlik ve geçerlik. Klinik Psikiyatri, 2(2), 75-88.
- Kendrick, P. J., Reitsma, M. B., Abbasi-Kangevari, M., Abdoli, A., Abdollahi, M., Abedi, A., . . . Advani, S. M. (2021). Spatial, temporal, and demographic patterns in prevalence of chewing tobacco use in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet Public Health.
- Kim, S. Y. (2018). Sedentary lifestyle and cardiovascular health. Korean journal of family medicine, 39(1), 1-1.
- Koch, I., Poljac, E., Müller, H., & Kiesel, A. (2018). Cognitive structure, flexibility, and plasticity in human multitasking-An integrative review of dual-task and task-switching research. Psychol Bull, 144(6), 557-583. doi: 10.1037/bul0000144
- Kok, M. O., Hoekstra, T., & Twisk, J. W. (2012). The longitudinal relation between smoking and muscle strength in healthy adults. European addiction research, 18(2), 70-75.
- Lee, S. Y., Pang, B. W. J., Lau, L. K., Jabbar, K. A., Seah, W. T., Chen, K. K., . . . Wee, S.-L. (2021). Cross-sectional associations of housework with cognitive, physical and sensorimotor functions in younger and older community-dwelling adults: the Yishun Study. BMJ open, 11(11), e052557. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-052557
- Mathiowetz, V., Rennells, C., & Donahoe, L. (1985). Effect of elbow position on grip and key pinch strength. The Journal of hand surgery, 10(5), 694-697.
- Mentiplay, B. F., Perraton, L. G., Bower, K. J., Adair, B., Pua, Y.-H., Williams, G. P., . . . Clark, R. A. (2015). Assessment of lower limb muscle strength and power using hand-held and fixed dynamometry: a reliability and validity study. PLoS One, 10(10), e0140822.
- Moreira, P. E. D., Dieguez, G. T. d. O., Bredt, S. d. G. T., & Praça, G. M. (2021). The acute and chronic effects of dual-task on the motor and cognitive performances in athletes: a systematic review. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(4), 1732.
- Pate, R. R., O'Neill, J. R., & Lobelo, F. (2008). The Evolving Definition of "Sedentary". Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 36(4).
- Plummer, P., Grewal, G., Najafi, B., & Ballard, A. (2015). Instructions and skill level influence reliability of dual-task performance in young adults. Gait & Posture, 41(4), 964-967. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2015.03.348
- Pushpa, K., & Kanchana, R. (2019). Effect of cigarette smoking on cognitive performance in young adult smokers. National Journal of Physiology, Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 9(6), 562-562.
- Pyky, R., Jauho, A.-M., Ahola, R., Ikäheimo, T. M., Koivumaa-Honkanen, H., Mäntysaari, M., . . . Korpelainen, R. (2015). Profiles of sedentary and non-sedentary young men–a population-based MOPO study. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 1-10.
- Rom, O., Kaisari, S., Aizenbud, D., & Reznick, A. Z. (2012). Identification of possible cigarette smoke constituents responsible for muscle catabolism. J Muscle Res Cell Motil, 33(3-4), 199-208. doi: 10.1007/s10974-012-9299-4
- Ryan, H., Trosclair, A., & Gfroerer, J. (2012). Adult Current Smoking: Differences in Definitions and Prevalence Estimates—NHIS and NSDUH, 2008. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2012, 918368. doi: 10.1155/2012/918368
- Sabia, S., Elbaz, A., Dugravot, A., Head, J., Shipley, M., Hagger-Johnson, G., . . . Singh-Manoux, A. (2012). Impact of smoking on cognitive decline in early old age: the Whitehall II cohort study. Archives of general psychiatry, 69(6), 627-635.
- Saito, T., Miyatake, N., Sakano, N., Oda, K., Katayama, A., Nishii, K., & Numata, T. (2012). Relationship between cigarette smoking and muscle strength in Japanese men. Journal of preventive medicine and public health = Yebang Uihakhoe chi, 45(6), 381-386. doi: 10.3961/jpmph.2012.45.6.381
- Sharareh, P., Leili, T., Abbas, M., Jalal, P., & Ali, G. (2020). Determining correlates of the average number of cigarette smoking among college students using count regression models. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-10.
- Stavrinos, D., Byington, K. W., & Schwebel, D. C. (2011). Distracted walking: Cell phones increase injury risk for college pedestrians. Journal of Safety Research, 42(2), 101-107. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2011.01.004
- Steffl, M., Bohannon, R. W., Petr, M., Kohlikova, E., & Holmerova, I. (2015). Relation between cigarette smoking and sarcopenia: meta-analysis. Physiological research, 64(3), 419.
- Stuss, D. T., & Levine, B. (2002). Adult clinical neuropsychology. Annu. Rev. Psychol, 53, 401-433.
- Sui, S. X., Williams, L. J., Holloway-Kew, K. L., Hyde, N. K., & Pasco, J. A. (2020). Skeletal muscle health and cognitive function: a narrative review. International journal of molecular sciences, 22(1), 255.
- Tamura, K., Kocher, M., Finer, L., Murata, N., & Stickley, C. (2018). Reliability of clinically feasible dual-task tests: Expanded timed get up and go test as a motor task on young healthy individuals. Gait & Posture, 60, 22-27. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2017.11.002
- Teyhen, D. S., Rhon, D. I., Butler, R. J., Shaffer, S. W., Goffar, S. L., McMillian, D. J., . . . Plisky, P. J. (2016). Association of Physical Inactivity, Weight, Smoking, and Prior Injury on Physical Performance in a Military Setting. Journal of athletic training, 51(11), 866-875. doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-51.6.02
- Valentine, G., & Sofuoglu, M. (2018). Cognitive Effects of Nicotine: Recent Progress. Current neuropharmacology, 16(4), 403-414. doi: 10.2174/1570159x15666171103152136
- Wall, J. C., Bell, C., Campbell, S., & Davis, J. (2000). The Timed Get-up-and-Go test revisited: measurement of the component tasks. Journal of rehabilitation research and development, 37(1).
- Yogev-Seligmann, G., Hausdorff, J. M., & Giladi, N. (2008). The role of executive function and attention in gait. Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 23(3), 329-472. doi: 10.1002/mds.21720
SEDANTER SAĞLIKLI GENÇ YETİŞKİNLERDE SİGARA İÇME DURUMUNUN BİLİŞSEL FONKSİYON, MOTOR PERFORMANS VE ÇİFT GÖREV ÜZERİNE ETKİLERİNİN KARŞILAŞTIRILMASI
Öz
Amaç: Birçok çalışma sigaranın bilişsel fonksiyon ve kas kuvveti üzerinde olumsuz etkileri olduğunu vurgulamaktadır. Bu nedenle çalışma, sigara içme durumuna göre sedanter sağlıklı genç bireylerin bilişsel fonksiyonlarını, motor performanslarını ve çift görevlerini karşılaştırmayı amaçladı.
Yöntem: Tanımlayıcı tipteki çalışmaya 18 - 25 yaş arası genç yetişkinler dahil edildi. Katılımcılar iki gruba ayrıldı; sigara içenler ve içmeyenler. Genel bilişsel durum Standardize Mini Mental Test (SMMT) ile ve yürütücü işlev Stroop testi ile değerlendirildi. Motor performans için kuadriseps femoris kası kuvveti ve kavrama kuvveti değerlendirildi ve Genişletilmiş Zamanlı Kalk ve Yürü testi (GTUG) kullanıldı. Katılımcıların çift görev yürüyüş performansı, GTUG ile eş zamanlı bir işitsel görev ile değerlendirildi. Veri normalliği için Shapiro-Wilk testi kullanıldı. Değişkenler normal dağılmadığı için gruplar arası karşılaştırmalar Mann Whitney U testi ile değerlendirildi.
Bulgular: Yaş ortalaması 21,08 ± 1,08 ve vücut kitle indeksi 21,73 ± 2,76 olan 62 katılımcı dahil edildi. Gruplar arası karşılaştırmalarda iki grup arasında bilişsel fonksiyon, kuadriseps kas kuvveti ve kavrama kuvveti açısından fark yoktu (p>0,05). GTUG ve bilişsel GTUG'da iki grup arasında sigara içmeyenlerin lehine fark vardı (p<0,05).
Sonuç: Sonuç olarak, sigara genç yetişkinlerde hem dinamik fonksiyonel aktivitelerde hem de çift görevde performans kaybına neden olmaktadır.
Anahtar Kelimeler
Proje Numarası
-
Kaynakça
- Adatia, A., Wahab, M., Shahid, I., Moinuddin, A., Killian, K. J., & Satia, I. (2021). Effects of cigarette smoke exposure on pulmonary physiology, muscle strength and exercise capacity in a retrospective cohort with 30,000 subjects. PLoS One, 16(6), e0250957-e0250957. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0250957
- Audrain-McGovern, J., Rodriguez, D., Cuevas, J., & Sass, J. (2013). Initial insight into why physical activity may help prevent adolescent smoking uptake. Drug and alcohol dependence, 132(3), 471-478. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.03.006
- Bashir, S., Alghamd, F., Alhussien, A., Alohali, M., Alatawi, A., Almusned, T., & Habib, S. S. (2017). Effect of Smoking on Cognitive Functioning in Young Saudi Adults. Med Sci Monit Basic Res, 23, 31-35. doi: 10.12659/msmbr.902385
- Bell, S. L., Taylor, R. C., Singleton, E. G., Henningfield, J. E., & Heishman, S. J. (1999). Smoking after nicotine deprivation enhances cognitive performance and decreases tobacco craving in drug abusers. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 1(1), 45-52.
- Beurskens, R., & Bock, O. (2011). Role of motor skills and visual demand for age-related deficits in dual-task walking. Ageing Research, 2(1), e5-e5.
- Brustio, P. R., Magistro, D., Zecca, M., Rabaglietti, E., & Liubicich, M. E. (2017). Age-related decrements in dual-task performance: Comparison of different mobility and cognitive tasks. A cross sectional study. PLoS One, 12(7), e0181698.
- Campos, M. W., Serebrisky, D., & Castaldelli-Maia, J. M. (2016). Smoking and Cognition. Curr Drug Abuse Rev, 9(2), 76-79. doi: 10.2174/1874473709666160803101633
- Cielen, N., Maes, K., Heulens, N., Troosters, T., Carmeliet, G., Janssens, W., & Gayan-Ramirez, G. N. (2016). Interaction between physical activity and smoking on lung, muscle, and bone in mice. American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology, 54(5), 674-682.
- Cildan Uysal, S., Tonak, H. A., & Kitis, A. (2022). Validity, reliability and test-retest study of Grip strength measurement in two positions with two dynamometers: Jamar® Plus and K-Force® Grip. Hand Surgery and Rehabilitation, 41(3), 305-310. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hansur.2022.02.007
- Degens, H., Gayan-Ramirez, G., & van Hees, H. W. (2015). Smoking-induced skeletal muscle dysfunction: from evidence to mechanisms. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 191(6), 620-625. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201410-1830PP
- Durutürk, N., & Acar, M. (2016). Üniversite Öğrencilerinde Sigara Tüketiminin Egzersiz Kapasitesi ve Sağlıkla İlgili Fiziksel Uygunluk Düzeyi Üzerine Etkisi. Başkent Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi-BÜSBİD, 1(2).
- Eymir, M., Yuksel, E., Unver, B., & Karatosun, V. (2021). Hand-Held Dynamometry in the Inpatient Care Setting After Total Knee Arthroplasty: Reliability of Static Knee Strength Measurements. American journal of physical medicine & rehabilitation, 100(6).
- Fisher, D. J., Knobelsdorf, A., Jaworska, N., Daniels, R., & Knott, V. J. (2013). Effects of nicotine on electroencephalographic (EEG) and behavioural measures of visual working memory in non-smokers during a dual-task paradigm. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 103(3), 494-500. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2012.09.014
- Fosang, A., & Baker, R. (2006). A method for comparing manual muscle strength measurements with joint moments during walking. Gait & Posture, 24(4), 406-411. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2005.09.015
- Hu, P., Huang, L., Zhou, S., Shi, Q., Xiao, D., & Wang, C. (2018). Smoking status and cognitive performance among vocational school students in Beijing, China. Respiratory medicine, 135, 8-11.
- Jacobsen, L. K., Krystal, J. H., Mencl, W. E., Westerveld, M., Frost, S. J., & Pugh, K. R. (2005). Effects of smoking and smoking abstinence on cognition in adolescent tobacco smokers. Biological psychiatry, 57(1), 56-66.
- Karakaş, S., Erdoğan, E., Sak, L., Soysal, A. Ş., Ulusoy, T., Ulusoy, İ. Y., & Alkan, S. (1999). Stroop Testi TBAG Formu: Türk kültürüne standardizasyon çalışmaları, güvenirlik ve geçerlik. Klinik Psikiyatri, 2(2), 75-88.
- Kendrick, P. J., Reitsma, M. B., Abbasi-Kangevari, M., Abdoli, A., Abdollahi, M., Abedi, A., . . . Advani, S. M. (2021). Spatial, temporal, and demographic patterns in prevalence of chewing tobacco use in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet Public Health.
- Kim, S. Y. (2018). Sedentary lifestyle and cardiovascular health. Korean journal of family medicine, 39(1), 1-1.
- Koch, I., Poljac, E., Müller, H., & Kiesel, A. (2018). Cognitive structure, flexibility, and plasticity in human multitasking-An integrative review of dual-task and task-switching research. Psychol Bull, 144(6), 557-583. doi: 10.1037/bul0000144
- Kok, M. O., Hoekstra, T., & Twisk, J. W. (2012). The longitudinal relation between smoking and muscle strength in healthy adults. European addiction research, 18(2), 70-75.
- Lee, S. Y., Pang, B. W. J., Lau, L. K., Jabbar, K. A., Seah, W. T., Chen, K. K., . . . Wee, S.-L. (2021). Cross-sectional associations of housework with cognitive, physical and sensorimotor functions in younger and older community-dwelling adults: the Yishun Study. BMJ open, 11(11), e052557. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-052557
- Mathiowetz, V., Rennells, C., & Donahoe, L. (1985). Effect of elbow position on grip and key pinch strength. The Journal of hand surgery, 10(5), 694-697.
- Mentiplay, B. F., Perraton, L. G., Bower, K. J., Adair, B., Pua, Y.-H., Williams, G. P., . . . Clark, R. A. (2015). Assessment of lower limb muscle strength and power using hand-held and fixed dynamometry: a reliability and validity study. PLoS One, 10(10), e0140822.
- Moreira, P. E. D., Dieguez, G. T. d. O., Bredt, S. d. G. T., & Praça, G. M. (2021). The acute and chronic effects of dual-task on the motor and cognitive performances in athletes: a systematic review. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(4), 1732.
- Pate, R. R., O'Neill, J. R., & Lobelo, F. (2008). The Evolving Definition of "Sedentary". Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 36(4).
- Plummer, P., Grewal, G., Najafi, B., & Ballard, A. (2015). Instructions and skill level influence reliability of dual-task performance in young adults. Gait & Posture, 41(4), 964-967. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2015.03.348
- Pushpa, K., & Kanchana, R. (2019). Effect of cigarette smoking on cognitive performance in young adult smokers. National Journal of Physiology, Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 9(6), 562-562.
- Pyky, R., Jauho, A.-M., Ahola, R., Ikäheimo, T. M., Koivumaa-Honkanen, H., Mäntysaari, M., . . . Korpelainen, R. (2015). Profiles of sedentary and non-sedentary young men–a population-based MOPO study. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 1-10.
- Rom, O., Kaisari, S., Aizenbud, D., & Reznick, A. Z. (2012). Identification of possible cigarette smoke constituents responsible for muscle catabolism. J Muscle Res Cell Motil, 33(3-4), 199-208. doi: 10.1007/s10974-012-9299-4
- Ryan, H., Trosclair, A., & Gfroerer, J. (2012). Adult Current Smoking: Differences in Definitions and Prevalence Estimates—NHIS and NSDUH, 2008. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2012, 918368. doi: 10.1155/2012/918368
- Sabia, S., Elbaz, A., Dugravot, A., Head, J., Shipley, M., Hagger-Johnson, G., . . . Singh-Manoux, A. (2012). Impact of smoking on cognitive decline in early old age: the Whitehall II cohort study. Archives of general psychiatry, 69(6), 627-635.
- Saito, T., Miyatake, N., Sakano, N., Oda, K., Katayama, A., Nishii, K., & Numata, T. (2012). Relationship between cigarette smoking and muscle strength in Japanese men. Journal of preventive medicine and public health = Yebang Uihakhoe chi, 45(6), 381-386. doi: 10.3961/jpmph.2012.45.6.381
- Sharareh, P., Leili, T., Abbas, M., Jalal, P., & Ali, G. (2020). Determining correlates of the average number of cigarette smoking among college students using count regression models. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-10.
- Stavrinos, D., Byington, K. W., & Schwebel, D. C. (2011). Distracted walking: Cell phones increase injury risk for college pedestrians. Journal of Safety Research, 42(2), 101-107. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2011.01.004
- Steffl, M., Bohannon, R. W., Petr, M., Kohlikova, E., & Holmerova, I. (2015). Relation between cigarette smoking and sarcopenia: meta-analysis. Physiological research, 64(3), 419.
- Stuss, D. T., & Levine, B. (2002). Adult clinical neuropsychology. Annu. Rev. Psychol, 53, 401-433.
- Sui, S. X., Williams, L. J., Holloway-Kew, K. L., Hyde, N. K., & Pasco, J. A. (2020). Skeletal muscle health and cognitive function: a narrative review. International journal of molecular sciences, 22(1), 255.
- Tamura, K., Kocher, M., Finer, L., Murata, N., & Stickley, C. (2018). Reliability of clinically feasible dual-task tests: Expanded timed get up and go test as a motor task on young healthy individuals. Gait & Posture, 60, 22-27. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2017.11.002
- Teyhen, D. S., Rhon, D. I., Butler, R. J., Shaffer, S. W., Goffar, S. L., McMillian, D. J., . . . Plisky, P. J. (2016). Association of Physical Inactivity, Weight, Smoking, and Prior Injury on Physical Performance in a Military Setting. Journal of athletic training, 51(11), 866-875. doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-51.6.02
- Valentine, G., & Sofuoglu, M. (2018). Cognitive Effects of Nicotine: Recent Progress. Current neuropharmacology, 16(4), 403-414. doi: 10.2174/1570159x15666171103152136
- Wall, J. C., Bell, C., Campbell, S., & Davis, J. (2000). The Timed Get-up-and-Go test revisited: measurement of the component tasks. Journal of rehabilitation research and development, 37(1).
- Yogev-Seligmann, G., Hausdorff, J. M., & Giladi, N. (2008). The role of executive function and attention in gait. Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 23(3), 329-472. doi: 10.1002/mds.21720
Toplam 43 adet kaynakça vardır.
Ayrıntılar
| Birincil Dil | İngilizce |
|---|---|
| Konular | Klinik Tıp Bilimleri |
| Bölüm | Araştırma Makaleleri |
| Yazarlar | |
| Proje Numarası | - |
| Yayımlanma Tarihi | 21 Eylül 2023 |
| Gönderilme Tarihi | 17 Ocak 2023 |
| Kabul Tarihi | 15 Mart 2023 |
| Yayımlandığı Sayı | Yıl 2023 Cilt: 4 Sayı: 2 |
